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In schools, many students learn the usage of "$\therefore$" and "$\because$" in proofs. Such three-dot notation are popular in many high-school books and exams, but are almost never used in university-level texts. (It seems that, at degree level, this notation only appears in some books about mathematical logic.)

Very often, it is somewhat awkward to use "$\therefore$" and "$\because$" for proofs, because modus ponens, the most commonly used principle of deduction, contains three parts, while "$\therefore$" and "$\because$" are just two symbols. Modus ponens states that from $A\Rightarrow B$ and $A$ we could deduce $B$, so the three parts are: $A\Rightarrow B$, $A$ and $B$.

We will of course write $B$ after "$\therefore$", but it is a good question where to put $A\Rightarrow B$ and $A$. We may either put both $A$ and $A\Rightarrow B$ after "$\because$", or put $A$ after "$\because$" and $A\Rightarrow B$ in brackets after "$\therefore B$".

In the end, the three-dot notation does not make the logic structure entirely clear. "$\therefore $" clearly indicates the conclusion, but the meaning of "$\because$" is not entirely clear - it could be either a theorem $A\Rightarrow B$ or a condition $A$. Sometimes, $A$ is too long (takes too many words) to be written out fully, which causes confusion.

Is there any better alternative to the three-dot notation? It is, after all, completely clear to just write everything in words.

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    $\begingroup$ The "therefore" symbol I used in school had 2 dots on the bottom and one dot on the top. I have never seen an upside-down "therefore" symbol before. What does it mean? $\endgroup$ Jun 23, 2020 at 12:54
  • $\begingroup$ @AdamRubinson "$\because$" means "because". To type it, write "\because". $\endgroup$
    – Ma Joad
    Jun 23, 2020 at 13:42
  • $\begingroup$ I see. Thank you $\endgroup$ Jun 23, 2020 at 14:26
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    $\begingroup$ Advice: Use these symbols only if you have to write very fast. Otherwise, write out "therefore" and "since" as words. $\endgroup$ Jun 23, 2020 at 22:47
  • $\begingroup$ Related: How to emphasise an equation together with its simplification? therefore, ∴, ⇒, etc. $\endgroup$
    – ryang
    Aug 7, 2022 at 8:46

2 Answers 2

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Is there any better alternative to the three-dot notation?

The usual general advice is to use words instead of symbols.

The best notation is no notation; whenever it is possible to avoid the use of a complicated alphabetic apparatus, avoid it. A good attitude to the preparation of written mathematical exposition is to pretend that it is spoken. Pretend that you are explaining the subject to a friend on a long walk in the woods, with no paper available; fall back on symbolism only when it is really necessary.

(Paul Halmos, How to Write Mathematics, p. 40.)

This applies particularly to the three-dot notation.

Do not misuse the implication operator ⇒ or the symbol ∴. The former is employed only in symbolic sentences; the latter is not used in higher mathematics.

Bad: a is an integer ⇒ a is a rational number.
Good: If a is an integer, then a is a rational number.
Bad: ⇒ x = 3.
Bad: ∴ x = 3.
Good: hence x = 3.
Good: and therefore x = 3.

Bad Theorem. n odd ⇒ 8|n² − 1.
Bad proof.
n odd ⇒ ∃j ∈ Z, n = 2j + 1;
∴ n² − 1 = 4j(j + 1);
∀j ∈ Z, 2 | j(j + 1) ⇒ 8 | n² − 1

This is a clumsy attempt to achieve conciseness via an entirely symbolic exposition.Combining words and symbols and adding some short explanations will improve readability and style.

(Franco Vivaldi, Mathematical Writing, p. 4 and 132.)

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    $\begingroup$ @PeterSaveliev I am unclear about what you mean by "doing both". Pedro does not seem to be suggesting an either / or approach, but instead seems to be saying "Use plain language until plain language becomes cumbersome." This seems to be advocating "both". $\endgroup$
    – Xander Henderson
    Jun 24, 2020 at 18:46
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    $\begingroup$ I'm not a fan of those two three-dots notations, because (1) in handwriting it is all too easy to write them ambiguously or illegibly (2) they lend themselves to ambiguous/bad logic/grammar, because people often don't test their writing by re-reading (when it's not in genuine words). $\endgroup$ Jun 24, 2020 at 19:07
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    $\begingroup$ @PeterSaveliev It sounds like you are asking people to write everything twice: once in plain language, once in notation. This doesn't seem like a good idea to me, and I imagine that most journal or book editors would show you the door. $\endgroup$
    – Xander Henderson
    Jun 24, 2020 at 19:10
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    $\begingroup$ @PeterSaveliev If you have an answer to the question, post an answer. It seems like you are suggesting a competing or additional answer. That would be excellent to have. $\endgroup$ Jun 24, 2020 at 19:40
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    $\begingroup$ I do like the notation for scratch work. Writing can be painful. Making it short and unambiguous is nice, and you can come back and rewrite if it ends up being something you want to share $\endgroup$ Jul 11, 2020 at 17:33
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The context isn't entirely clear so I'll assume this is about teaching. Then, I support Pedro's answer but also want to add that doing both verbal and symbolic versions may be a good idea. For example:

Theorem. A polynomial has a higher order than another if and only if its degree is higher.

In other words, for any two polynomials $P$ and $Q$, we have: $$P=o(Q) \ \Longleftrightarrow\ \deg P<\deg Q\, .$$

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    $\begingroup$ I don't think this scales well. I'm picturing a proof where this is done for every statement and it seems like it would be a nightmare to read. For summary or major conclusion points it could be fine. $\endgroup$ Jun 24, 2020 at 22:51
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    $\begingroup$ @Daniel R. Collins Yes, I meant this as a theorem. $\endgroup$ Jun 24, 2020 at 23:29

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